ABSTRACT
OBJECTIVE: The evidence base for social prescribing is inconclusive, and evaluations have been criticised for lacking rigour. This realist review sought to understand how and why social prescribing evaluations work or do not work. Findings from this review will contribute to the development of an evidence-based evaluation framework and reporting standards for social prescribing. DESIGN: A realist review. DATA SOURCES: ASSIA, CINAHL, Embase, Medline, PsycINFO, PubMed, Scopus Online, Social Care Online, Web of Science and grey literature. ELIGIBILITY CRITERIA: Documents reporting on social prescribing evaluations using any methods, published between 1998 and 2020 were included. Documents not reporting findings or lacking detail on methods for data collection and outcomes were excluded. ANALYSIS: Included documents were segregated into subcases based on methodology. Data relating to context, mechanisms and outcomes and the programme theory were extracted and context-mechanism-outcome configurations were developed. Meta-inferences were drawn from all subcases to refine the programme theory. RESULTS: 83 documents contributed to analysis. Generally, studies lacked in-depth descriptions of the methods and evaluation processes employed. A cyclical process of social prescribing evaluation was identified, involving preparation, conducting the study and interpretation. The analysis found that coproduction, alignment, research agency, sequential mixed-methods design and integration of findings all contributed to the development of an acceptable, high-quality social prescribing evaluation design. Context-mechanism-outcome configurations relating to these themes are reported. CONCLUSIONS: To develop the social prescribing evidence base and address gaps in our knowledge about the impact of social prescribing and how it works, evaluations must be high quality and acceptable to stakeholders. Development of an evaluation framework and reporting standards drawing on the findings of this realist review will support this aim. PROSPERO REGISTRATION NUMBER: CRD42020183065.
ABSTRACT
Severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus2 (SARSCoV2), the causative viral agent for the ongoing COVID19 pandemic, enters its host cells primarily via the binding of the SARSCoV2 spike (S) proteins to the angiotensinconverting enzyme 2 (ACE2). A number of other cell entry mediators have also been identified, including neuropilin1 (NRP1) and transmembrane protease serine 2 (TMPRSS2). More recently, it has been demonstrated that transmembrane protease serine 4 (TMPRSS4) along with TMPRSS2 activate the SARSCoV2 S proteins, and enhance the viral infection of human small intestinal enterocytes. To date, a systematic analysis of TMPRSS4 in health and disease is lacking. In the present study, using in silico tools, the gene expression and genetic alteration of TMPRSS4 were analysed across numerous tumours and compared to controls. The observations were also expanded to the level of the central nervous system (CNS). The findings revealed that TMPRSS4 was overexpressed in 11 types of cancer, including lung adenocarcinoma, lung squamous cell carcinoma, cervical squamous cell carcinoma, thyroid carcinoma, ovarian cancer, cancer of the rectum, pancreatic cancer, colon and stomach adenocarcinoma, uterine carcinosarcoma and uterine corpus endometrial carcinoma, whilst it was significantly downregulated in kidney carcinomas, acute myeloid leukaemia, skin cutaneous melanoma and testicular germ cell tumours. Finally, a high TMPRSS4 expression was documented in the olfactory tubercle, paraolfactory gyrus and frontal operculum, all brain regions which are associated with the sense of smell and taste. Collectively, these data suggest that TMPRSS4 may play a role in COVID19 symptomatology as another SARSCoV2 host cell entry mediator responsible for the tropism of this coronavirus both in the periphery and the CNS.
Subject(s)
COVID-19/enzymology , COVID-19/genetics , Membrane Proteins/genetics , SARS-CoV-2/physiology , SARS-CoV-2/pathogenicity , Serine Endopeptidases/genetics , Virus Internalization , Brain/enzymology , COVID-19/virology , Central Nervous System/enzymology , Computer Simulation , Databases, Genetic , Female , Gastrointestinal Tract/enzymology , Gene Expression Profiling , Host Microbial Interactions/genetics , Host Microbial Interactions/physiology , Humans , Male , Membrane Proteins/physiology , Neoplasms/enzymology , Neoplasms/genetics , Pandemics , Serine Endopeptidases/physiologyABSTRACT
Infection by the severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS) coronavirus2 (SARSCoV2) is the cause of the new viral infectious disease (coronavirus disease 2019; COVID19). Emerging evidence indicates that COVID19 may be associated with a wide spectrum of neurological symptoms and complications with central nervous system (CNS) involvement. It is now wellestablished that entry of SARSCoV2 into host cells is facilitated by its spike proteins mainly through binding to the angiotensinconverting enzyme 2 (ACE2). Preclinical studies have suggested that neuropilin1 (NRP1), which is a transmembrane receptor that lacks a cytosolic protein kinase domain and exhibits high expression in the respiratory and olfactory epithelium, may also be implicated in COVID19 by enhancing the entry of SARSCoV2 into the brain through the olfactory epithelium. In the present study, we expand on these findings and demonstrate that the NRP1 is also expressed in the CNS, including olfactoryrelated regions such as the olfactory tubercles and paraolfactory gyri. This furthers supports the potential role of NRP1 as an additional SARSCoV2 infection mediator implicated in the neurologic manifestations of COVID19. Accordingly, the neurotropism of SARSCoV2 via NRP1expressing cells in the CNS merits further investigation.